General > Resources
Pixels And Art Glossary
0xDB:
update April 7th 2019: PAAG is now part of the "Pixel Art Historical Society" Wiki at http://pixelwiki.comun.se
update Nov. 17th 2018: Porting (plus some additions and edits) this glossary is finished.
update Nov. 9th 2018: I have starting porting this glossary to a proper wiki at http://paag.dennisbusch.de which will make maintenance and expansion much easier. So the glossary in the first post of this thread will not be updated anymore. I will still watch this thread for suggestions on terms that should be included in the glossary.
short title: Pixels And Art Glossary
long title: 'a non-exhaustive Pixels And Art Glossary, descriptive in nature, compiled from some of the elements observed in what is vaguely known as "Pixel Art", from historical technological evolution of computer graphics(~1970-2000) and from thoughts developed by the major Pixel Art communities on the internet (199x and up)'
scope and intention:
This is NOT an attempt to create and provide a formal definition of "Pixel Art" nor an attempt at providing a ruleset on good and bad practices. It is to be understood as being purely descriptive. I shall also attempt to keep the final document descriptive and not judgemental, so e.g. something like "Pillow Shading" will be included but there will be nothing in the description which advises for or against doing it (should be self evident to the readers to make the "right" decision from seeing a pillow shaded image without rubbing it in their face).
Most entries already have at least a brief summary and/or links to vast amounts of information on everyones favorite open encyclopedia.
Readers of this thread are encouraged to throw in Terms which should be included in the Glossary.
Glossary Index
5 P's and 5 C's
Achromatic Color
Aliasing & Antialiasing
Amiga
Animation
Area
Aspect Ratio
Attribute Cells
Attribute Clash
Banding
Bitmap & Bitdepth
Blur
Brightness, Lightness & Value
Cabinet Projection
Cavalier Projection
Camera Obscura
Cartesian Coordinate System
CGA
Cluster
Color
Color Balance
Color Cycling
Color Depth
Color Model - HSL/HSV(HSB)
Color Model - RGB
Color Gradient/Ramp/Shift
Color Scheme
Color Space
Commodore 64
Composition
Construction
Contour
Contrast
Cross Section
Digital Mixing Of Color
Dithering
Dither-AA
Drawing
EGA
Elevation
Format
Cluster
Foreshortening
Gesture
Gradient
Graphic Mode
Projection
GIF
History Of Pixel Art
Hue
Hue Shift
Image
Indexed Image/Color
Index Painting
Isometric Projection
JPG, JPEG
Key
Layer
Lossy&Lossless Compression
Line
Restrictions
Lighting
Lightness (aka Value, aka Tone)
Graphics Mode
Monochromatic Color
Motion Blur
MSX
NES
Negative Space
Oblique Projection
Oekaki
Orthographic Projection
Outline
PNG
Palette
Palette Effect
Palette Structure
Palette Swap
Palette Swap - Color Cycling
Painting With Pixels
Parallel Projection
Perspective
Perspective Projection
Perception
Picture Plane
Pillow Shading
Pixel
Plan
Projection (Graphical)
Raster
(Aspect) Ratio
Ramp
Resolution
Restrictions
Rendering
Saturation
Selout
Set
Sequence
Shade
Shading
Shape
Shape Bluffing
Sketch
Sprite
Style
SVGA
Tall Pixel
Texture
Tile & Tileset
Tint
Value & Key
VGA
Visual Arts
Video Game Graphics
Volume
Wireframing
Wide Pixel
X-axis
y-axis
z-axis
ZX Spectrum
--- # ---
5 P's and 5 C's
According to Andrew Loomis (see his book "Successful Drawing"), in any succesful drawing, attention must be given to five P's and five C's as Loomis calls them. These are (this is a quote from pages 18,19 in that book):
Proportion, the three dimensions
Placement, a position in space
Perspective, relationship of viewpoint to subject
Planes, surface appearance as defined by light and shadow
Pattern, the deliberate arrangement of the tones on the subject
Conception, a rough indication of an idea
Construction, an attempt to establish the forms from life or from basic knowledge
Contour, the limits of forms in space, according to viewpoint
Character, the specific qualities of individual units of your subject in light
Consistency, all the essentials of construction, lighting, and pattern, organized as a unit
--- A ---
Achromatic Color
Literally a color "without color", which is all shades of gray and black and white.
Practically all colors without a strong perceptual chromaticity are called achromatic.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_scheme#Achromatic_colors
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Achromatic_color&redirect=no
Aliasing & Antialiasing
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliasing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaggies
Amiga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga
Animation
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation
Area
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Area
Aspect Ratio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel_aspect_ratio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_aspect_ratio
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_(image)
Attribute Cells
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_graphic_modes
http://www.studiostyle.sk/dmagic/gallery/gfxmodes.htm
Attribute Clash
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribute_clash
--- B ---
Banding
further reading:
Not to be confused with https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_banding
which refers to the distinctly visible changes between stripes of colors hugging each other in what was supposed to look like a soft gradient.
Bitmap & Bitdepth
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmap
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics
Blur
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defocus_aberration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_blur
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokeh
Brightness, Lightness & Value
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brightness
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightness
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSL_and_HSV (L in HSL is NOT "Lightness As Value" but some arbitrary Brightness)
--- C ---
Cabinet Projection
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection#Cabinet_projection
Cavalier Projection
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection#Cavalier_projection
Camera Obscura
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscura
Cartesian Coordinate System
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinate_system
CGA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_Graphics_Adapter
Cluster
further reading:
http://wayofthepixel.net/index.php?topic=8110.0 - Ramblethread
http://wayofthepixel.net/index.php?topic=15566.0 - 1st Cluster Study Thread
http://wayofthepixel.net/index.php?topic=15018.0 - 2nd Cluster Study Thread
(just search for "cluster" on this board... there are a few more :) )
Color
video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MmhSXTMTtJM "Light Darkness And Colours - A Fascinating Journey Through The Universe Of Colours" 51m15s
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_theory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementary_colors
http://i.imgur.com/vDHMURo.jpg - chronologically ordered set of different color systems
Color Balance
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_balance
Color Cycling, seePalette Swap - Color Cycling
Color Depth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_depth
Color Model - HSL/HSV(HSB)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSL_and_HSV
Color Model - RGB
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB_color_model
Color Gradient/Ramp/Shift
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_gradient
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tints_and_shades
http://www.dennisbusch.de/dcgg.php - Dynamic Color Gradient Generator
Color Scheme
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_scheme
Color Space
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_space
Commodore 64
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64
Composition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)
Construction
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawing#Form_and_proportion
https://www.google.com/?q=drawing+fundamentals+construction
Contour
The thin fringe (drawn or perceived) between everything that is part of an object and everything that is not part of that object.
Contrast
A difference between any two things. Hues can contrast (see complementary colors). Values can contrast. Shapes can contrast (e.g. round shapes contrast pointy shapes). Lines can contrast (horizontals contrast verticals, wavy lines contrast straights). Pretty much any thing has the potential to create a strong perceptual difference between itself and something else.
Cross Section
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)
--- D ---
Digital Mixing Of Color
Is done by changing the components of a color in a digital color model (such as RGB) or by placing differently colored pixels close to each other (mixing by proximity, called Dithering).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_color
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_mixing
Dithering
Dither-AA
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dither
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dither#Digital_photography_and_image_processing
Drawing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawing
--- E ---
EGA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enhanced_Graphics_Adapter
Elevation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiview_orthographic_projection#Elevation
--- F ---
Format
For pixel art, make sure to use any "lossless compression" format. PNG is a good one.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_file_formats
Fragment, see Cluster
Foreshortening
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)#Foreshortening
--- G ---
Gesture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesture_drawing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74HR59yFZ7Y - How to Draw Gesture by Stan Prokopenko
Gradient, regular and irregular, following an outline, following a volume
(pillow shading = gradient hugs an outline/contour instead of wrapping across a surface or following light/shadow logic over a volume)
Graphic Mode
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_display_standard
http://www.studiostyle.sk/dmagic/gallery/gfxmodes.htm - some C64 Graphic Modes
Graphical Projection, see Projection
GIF
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIF
--- H ---
History Of Pixel Art
see The History Of Pixel Art
Hue
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hue
Hue Shift
A Color Shift in which the Hue property of the initial color is shifted to another Hue. Often (arbitrarily) used to render the light and dark parts of shaded volumes with a different Hue in addition to a different Lightness. There are observable phenomena in nature which show shifts in Hue (see also Color) under some lighting conditions.
--- I ---
Image
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_image
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics
Indexed Image/Color
An image saved with a limited amount of colors, each color refered to in the raster as the index number at which it occurs in the palette, see also palette.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexed_color
Index Painting
Creating Pixel Art in Indexed Modes, working with Indexed Images while paying attention to Palette Structure and keeping possible Palette Effects in mind and at all times keeping control over (if necessary by fixing the results) the pixel level polish of a piece even when using tools that influence more than one pixel at a time.
Historically, "Index Painting" is the natural way to go and think about making Pixel Art as most hardware and digital image editing tools either used Indexed Modes as the default mode or simply did not provide any other modes. The term "Index Painting" was not around then because there simply was nothing else. Today the term seems to be used to set "Pixel Art"(in the sense of Index Painting) apart from other "Pixel Art"(in the sense of Digital Painting and Computer Generated Imagery(e.g. 3D renderings)) and the third kind of "Pixel Art"(the purists "one pixel at a time"- process).
Some advocate placing one pixel at a time as the only "allowed" process to create "Pixel Art"(a term which eludes definition itself) while others advocate whether something is or is not "Pixel Art" can not be defined by processes but only by looking at the results.
The actual term "Index Painting" emerged from the on-going online debate about "pixel purism", processes and results:
http://www.danfessler.com/blog/pixel-purism-process-vs-results
http://www.danfessler.com/blog/hd-index-painting-in-photoshop
Isometric Projection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_projection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_graphics_in_video_games_and_pixel_art
Isometric Pixel Art Cheat Sheet
--- J ---
JPG, JPEG
This lossy digital image format is unsuitable to store pixel art because of compression artifacts.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG
--- K ---
Key, see Value & Key
--- L ---
Layer
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layers_(digital_image_editing)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics#Layers
Lossy&Lossless Compression
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_file_formats#Image_file_compression
Line purpose and functions of a line
todo:
Line Art (emphasize the difference between a painterly sketch here and present line art as a way to define a depiction of something without fully rendering it, also mention variations in line-width effects and point out the perceptual thickness of lines in relation to resolution and shape size of any part of something)
Limitations (see Restrictions)
Lighting
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting
Lightness (aka Value, aka Tone)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightness
--- M ---
Mode, see Graphics Mode
Monochromatic Color
All tints, tones and shades of equal hue.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_scheme#Monochromatic_colors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monochromatic_color
Motion Blur
Visual swooshy action hints or the perceived blur along the path of movement of an object when your camera or eyes can not sample it fast enough to get a crisp image.
MSX
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSX
--- N ---
NES
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System
Negative Space
All space that does not contain anything of the currently observed object.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_space
--- O ---
Oblique Projection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblique_projection
Oekaki
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oekaki
Orthographic Projection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthographic_projection
Outline
Line around a shape.
--- P ---
PNG
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics
Palette
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palette_(computing) ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indexed_color )
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_color_palettes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_video_game_console_palettes
Palette Effect
In Indexed Images/Modes where each pixel in the image refers to a specific color in a sequence of colors(=palette) (instead of holding the full definition of the color in each individual pixel itself), a number of visual effects such as Color Cycling and Color Fading can be achieved by manipulating the palette instead of manipulating the pixels themselves.
This was used a lot on old hardware as manipulating the definition of colors in the palette took much fewer CPU cycles than going through the image and changing the actual pixels themselves.
A simple example for a Palette Effect is just re-defining a color in the palette:
If a thousand pixels in an image referred to color at index five in the palette and index five would hold Green and index twelve would hold Red, all thousand pixels could be changed to Red by changing the color at index five from Green to Red instead of going through the image and looking for every Green pixel and changing the pixel itself to refer to index twelve.
Palette Structure
Palette Swap
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palette_swap
Palette Swap - Color Cycling
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_cycling
HTML5 Color Cycling Demo - Art by Mark Ferrari Code by Joseph Huckaby
Painting With Pixels
Painting with pixels means to apply blobs/clusters of colored pixels to the raster while thinking like a painter would think with traditional brushes and paint. The difference in (strict) Pixel Art is that the newly placed pixels do not blend or mix in any way with the pixels which are already there on the raster but instead fully replace them (unlike paint which mixes with the paint already on the canvas). Most Pixel Art editing software still has a multitude of painting or brush modes and layer effects though which can still cause a placed blob of pixels to blend/mix with the pixels that are already there.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting
Parallel Projection
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_projection
Perspective
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)
todo: (horizon, vanishing points, planes, measuring points, camera height and angle)
Perspective Projection
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)
Perception
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception
Picture Plane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picture_plane
Pillow Shading
Pixel, an element in a digital raster image
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel
Plan
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_(drawing)
Projection (Graphical)
todo: overview image with different projections
further reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_projection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_plan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiview_orthographic_projection
--- Q ---
--- R ---
Raster
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics
Ratio, see Aspect Ratio
Ramp
(todo: linear, non-linear, refer also to intersection between ramps, talk about value, hue and saturation here as well)
Resolution
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_resolution
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_resolution
Restrictions
Restrictions are arbitrarily chosen or real (by hardware limits) limitations imposed upon a work of (pixel) art. The limitations include figures on resolution (horizontal and vertical dimensions of the piece in number of pixels), number of colors which apply globally to the whole image and sometimes additional local restrictions per Attribute Cell.
Rendering
The process of applying value, color and texture to an imagined or wireframed structure in order to arrive at the final depiction of something.
--- S ---
Saturation
The perceived intensity of a specific color(hue).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorfulness
Selout
todo: selective outlining
Set
An un-ordered collection of things: e.g. { Banana, Cherry, Pineapple, Motor Oil }
Sequence
An ordered collection of things, so that each thing in the collection can be referred to explicitly by its index(the 1st element often gets assigned to index 0): e.g. { 0: hamster, 1: gasoline, 2: torch, 3: book of sinister implications }
Shade
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tints_and_shades
Shading
The process of applying different tints, tones and shades upon volumes in accordance with one or more real or imagined lightsources which illuminate those volumes. The goal of shading is to create an illusion of three-dimensionality on a two-dimensional surface(the canvas or raster).
Shape
A shape is a two dimensional entity. Cutting through a volume with a plane reveals a shape along the cut (see also Cross Section).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape
Shape Bluffing
Shape Bluffing means to add abstract detail instead of rendering any specific texture onto a surface. Shapes themselves are two dimensional but the abstract detail added by "Shape"-Bluffing often appears to be three dimensional or aims to add a three-dimensional appearance to the surface/volume over which it is spread.
further reading:
http://pixeljoint.com/pixelart/30531.htm
Sketch
A deliberately rough representation of anything, intended as a base for further work or just to capture a thought/idea or to explore different angles and details of a subject in preparation for a polished work or design. Synonymous with doodle.
Sprite
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)
Style
A usually limited set of specific ways to depict something, used consistently to achieve a unified look&feel across several elements of a larger collection of pieces.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)
SVGA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_video_graphics_array
--- T ---
Tall Pixel
Pixel with an Aspect Ratio of 1:2 or any pixel which is taller than it is wide.
Texture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_(visual_arts)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping
Tile & Tileset
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile-based_video_game
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile_engine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiled_rendering
Tint
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tints_and_shades
Tone, see Value
--- U ---
--- V ---
Value & Key
see also Brightness, Lightness & Value
VGA
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Graphics_Array
Visual Arts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_the_visual_arts
Video Game Graphics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_graphics
Volume
A three-dimensional body in a three dimensional cartesian coordinate system (e.g. sphere, cuboid, cone, cylinder, pyramid). To get a strong illusion of volumes on a two dimensional surface, it is desirable to employ a suitable projection in addition to shading the volumes consistently according to imagined lightsources and utilizing texture to emphasize surface curvature.
--- W ---
Wireframing
A quick way to define Volumes first in sketches and in construction without having to fully render them. Also useful to draw the invisible sides of objects to find correct placement and proportion of things which are partially covered by other things.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire-frame_model
Wide Pixel
Pixel with an Aspect Ratio of 2:1 or any pixel that is wider than it is tall.
--- X ---
X-axis
The first dimension in a Cartesian Coordinate System.
--- Y ---
y-axis
The second dimension in a Cartesian Coordinate System.
--- Z ---
z-axis
The third dimension in a Cartesian Coordinate System.
ZX Spectrum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum
Ambivorous:
I realise this falls under a sub category of correct lighting, but can we get a formal definition of the embossed/sticker effect that a lot of pixel art (and art in general) suffers from in some small way or another?
I'd group pillow shading in the same category, and Cure's tutorial addresses it, but no one seems to be formalising a mistake* a lot of skilled pixel artists even make sometimes.
*I realise you don't want to say these are incorrect. I am simply implying they are unintentional.
0xDB:
--- Quote from: Ambivorous on February 05, 2016, 12:41:26 pm ---I realise this falls under a sub category of correct lighting, but can we get a formal definition of the embossed/sticker effect that a lot of pixel art (and art in general) suffers from in some small way or another?
I'd group pillow shading in the same category, and Cure's tutorial addresses it, but no one seems to be formalising a mistake* a lot of skilled pixel artists even make sometimes.
*I realise you don't want to say these are incorrect. I am simply implying they are unintentional.
--- End quote ---
Sure something like that could be included somehow if we can think of a good descriptive term for the "issue". That way of shading does not seem incorrect per-se but rather a mismatch between a few things: the volume suggested by outline, the conditioned imagination of a viewers idea of a round belly volume, the way the belly was actually shaded with clusters hugging the outline which do not match the direction of light and do not support the definition of the volume due to that... ... it's a complex "problem", hard to formalize and put a term on.
Closest I can think of from the top of my head is "Contextual Shape/Volume Perception Mismatch". That would be quite the monstrosity of a term though, so this might be something too specific to include in a Glossary and could perhaps better be handled in auxiliary texts or tutorials which may be free in themselves to be not purely descriptive and include suggestions for best practices while referring to terms from the Glossary in their descriptions of the hows and whys and reasons and context.
yrizoud:
I just wanted to say, this is the kind of information which is well represented in the form of a wiki : This way, the glossary article is linked whenever the same word is mentioned in an other article. Wiki also helps linking articles -> categories -> other articles in same category.
As for the words, I would add :
- sketch (in the sense of : deliberately rough representation, intended as a base for further work)
- painting (in the sense of : the technique of laying colors on top of each others, the new color replacing completely the previous ones)
- line art
- ramp (to explain "non-linear ramp" and "intersecting ramps" of a palette)
- color shift
- color space
0xDB:
--- Quote from: yrizoud on February 05, 2016, 01:12:16 pm ---I just wanted to say, this is the kind of information which is well represented in the form of a wiki : This way, the glossary article is linked whenever the same word is mentioned in an other article. Wiki also helps linking articles -> categories -> other articles in same category.
As for the words, I would add :
- sketch (in the sense of : deliberately rough representation, intended as a base for further work)
- painting (in the sense of : the technique of laying colors on top of each others, the new color replacing completely the previous ones)
- line art
- ramp (to explain "non-linear ramp" and "intersecting ramps" of a palette)
- color shift
- color space
--- End quote ---
Yes, we could convert the first iteration of the "finished" document to a wiki and see where it goes from there (I personally would prefer a single page layout though with #anchor elements to link to individual terms for referring to them in discussion and as a good overview of all the things that we're dealing with in pixels and art.). Added your words to the opening post.
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